Normal Adolescent Development—

Middle School and Early High School Years
Parents are often worried or confused by changes in their teenagers. The following information should help parents understand this phase of development. Each teenager is an individual with a unique personality and special interests, likes and dislikes. However, there are also numerous developmental issues that everyone faces during the adolescent years. The normal feelings and behaviors of the middle school and early high school adolescent are described below.

Movement Towards Independence

• Complaints that parents interfere with independence
• Feeling awkward or strange about one's self and one's body
• Focus on self, alternating between high expectations and poor self-esteem
• Improved ability to use speech to express one's self
• Interests and clothing style influenced by peer group
• Less overt affection shown to parents, with occasional rudeness
• Moodiness
• Realization that parents are not perfect; identification of their faults
• Struggle with sense of identity
• Tendency to return to childish behavior, particularly when stressed

Future Interests and Cognitive Changes

• Greater ability to do work (physical, mental, emotional)
• Intellectual interests expand and gain in importance
• Mostly interested in present, with limited thoughts of the future

Sexuality

• Concerns regarding physical and sexual attractiveness to others
• Display shyness, blushing, and modesty
• Frequently changing relationships
• Girls develop physically sooner than boys
• Increased interest in sex
• Movement toward heterosexuality with fears of homosexuality
• Worries about being normal

Morals, Values, and Self-Direction

• Capacity for abstract thought
• Development of ideals and selection of role models
• Experimentation with sex and drugs (cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana)
• More consistent evidence of conscience
• Rule and limit testing

Young teenagers do vary slightly from the above descriptions, but the feelings and behaviors are, in general, considered normal for each stage of adolescence.

Late High School Years and Beyond

Parents are often worried or confused by changes in their teenagers. The following information should help parents understand this phase of development. Each teenager is an individual with a unique personality and special interests, likes and dislikes. However, there are also numerous developmental issues that everyone faces during the adolescent years. The normal feelings and behaviors of the late high school adolescent are described below.

Movement towards Independence

• Ability to think ideas through
• Conflict with parents begins to decrease
• Examination of inner experiences
• Firmer and more cohesive sense of identity
• Increased ability for delayed gratification and compromise
• Increased concern for others
• Increased emotional stability
• Increased independent functioning
• Increased self-reliance
• Peer relationships remain important and take an appropriate place among other interests

Future Interests and Cognitive Changes

• Increased concern for the future
• More importance is placed on one's role in life
• Work habits become more defined

Sexuality

• Development of more serious relationships
• Feelings of love and passion
• Firmer sense of sexual identity
• Increased capacity for tender and sensual love

Morals, Values, and Self-Direction

• Capacity to use insight
• Greater capacity for setting goals
• Increased emphasis on personal dignity and self-esteem
• Interest in moral reasoning
• Social and cultural traditions regain some of their previous importance

Older teenagers do vary slightly from the above descriptions, but the feelings and behaviors are, in general, considered normal for each stage of adolescence.

Helping Your Teen Develop Healthy Independence—

Organized youth activities help teens develop independence without the conflict and distancing from their families that parents have come to anticipate during adolescence.

Participation in these groups can make the teen passage smoother for everyone. When parents negotiate teen independence around such issues as going to parties, messy rooms, or the choice of a girlfriend or boyfriend, it's rarely a win-win situation.

In youth activities, teens develop independence in a way parents can appreciate. Teens learn to speak up for themselves, develop social confidence, work with peers toward a goal or as part of a team, and learn how to regulate their emotions, all skills they eventually bring home for use in a family setting.

But teens also report that participating in these activities make them feel closer to their families, which runs counter to what we've come to expect of family relationships during adolescence.

In a study, published in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 113 high-school students in 12 arts, technology, and leadership/service programs were interviewed biweekly over a two- to nine-month period of participation. Researchers also spoke with program advisers and parents about the teens' development as they participated in their activity and asked how teens' participation affected family relationships and household routines.

The study showed that organized youth activities allow teens to gradually negotiate their independence in a context of continued family connection, a situation developmental psychologists see as the ideal course of development.

In the past, experts have thought that tension and family conflict were necessary during adolescence so that teens can separate from their families. But new research shows that teens who have more conflict with their parents continue to have struggles and don't do as well in adulthood.

Instead of discouraging teens from participating in youth activities for fear of over-scheduling them and losing precious family time, parents should encourage their teens to participate in at least one organized activity outside of school.

In most families, teens choose an activity they like or have an interest in, and parents support and encourage them. Everyone's on the same wavelength. Parents take steps to facilitate their child's involvement, such as providing rides or relaxing rules so that kids can take part. For parents in high-risk neighborhoods, permitting and supporting a teen's independence could have critical, if not life-threatening, consequences.

Marco, an urban youth from a Mexican-American family, described his parents' reactions when he decided to attend Art First in middle school: "My mother and father were reluctant to let me go to because it was far away from home, and they were worried. The first few days my dad took the train with me to help me see where I would get off, to make sure I had every detail down. Then I took the train by myself."

Granting such freedom often involves progressive trust-building with youth. One mother said, "I had to trust Monique with the key to my house, as well as trust her to go to the program and come home without having any problems."

Monique's mother learned to have confidence in her, and many teens in the study reported that their parents were treating them with more respect and were interested in their opinions because of the new behaviors they displayed as a result of participating in these activities.

Supportive parents noticed and took pride in their children's accomplishments and attended events and special program activities, but it was important for the teens to set boundaries on parents' involvement. Research on how adults support youth's growing independence includes not just things parents do, but things they don't do.

In some cases, teens had to gently negotiate the extent of parental involvement and assistance. That too was a process that led both to autonomy and closer emotional ties, including mutual respect.
Online Parent Support


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Dr. Richard Falzone describes the developmental tasks of adolescence.

Talking To Your Kids About Sex

Answering kids' questions about sex is one of the responsibilities many parents dread most. Otherwise confident parents often feel tongue-tied and awkward when it comes to sex. But the subject shouldn't be avoided. By answering children's questions as they arise, parents can help foster healthy feelings about sex.

Talking to your children about love, intimacy, and sex is an important part of parenting. Parents can be very helpful by creating a comfortable atmosphere in which to talk to their children about these issues. However, many parents avoid or postpone the discussion. Each year about one million teenage girls become pregnant in the United States and three million teens get a sexually transmitted disease.

Learning about sex should not occur in one all-or-nothing session. It should be more of an unfolding process, one in which the child learns, over time, what she needs to know. Questions should be answered as they arise so that the child's natural curiosity is satisfied as she matures.

If your child doesn't ask questions about sex, don't just ignore the subject. At about age 5, you can begin to introduce books that approach sexuality on a developmentally appropriate level. Parents often have trouble finding the right words, but there are a number of excellent books to help.

Children and adolescents need input and guidance from parents to help them make healthy and appropriate decisions regarding their sexual behavior since they can be confused and over stimulated by what they see and hear. Information about sex obtained by children from the Internet can often be inaccurate and/or inappropriate.

Talking about sex may be uncomfortable for both parents and children. Parents should respond to the needs and curiosity level of their individual child, offering no more or less information than their child is asking for and is able to understand. Getting advice from a clergyman, pediatrician, family physician, or other health professional may be helpful. Books that use illustrations or diagrams may aid communication and understanding.

Parents should begin the sex education process long before it begins in school. The introduction of formal sex education in the classroom varies; many schools start it in the fifth or sixth grade. Some of the topics addressed in a sex education class may include anatomy, contraception, sexually transmitted diseases, and pregnancy. Parents should be open to continuing the dialogue and answering questions at home. Schools tend to teach mechanics and science more than values. This is an area where parents can and should have something to teach.

Children have different levels of curiosity and understanding depending upon their age and level of maturity. As children grow older, they will often ask for more details about sex. Many children have their own words for body parts. It is important to find out words they know and are comfortable with to make talking with them easier.

A 5-year-old may be happy with the simple answer that babies come from a seed that grows in a special place inside the mother. Dad helps when his seed combines with mom's seed, which causes the baby to start to grow. An 8-year-old may want to know how dad's seed gets to mom's seed. Parents may want to talk about dad's seed (or sperm) coming from his penis and combining with mom's seed (or egg) in her uterus. Then the baby grows in the safety of mom's uterus for nine months until it is strong enough to be born. An 11-year-old may want to know even more and parents can help by talking about how a man and woman fall in love and then may decide to have sex.

It is important to talk about the responsibilities and consequences that come from being sexually active. Pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, and feelings about sex are important issues to be discussed.

Talking to your children can help them make the decisions that are best for them without feeling pressured to do something before they are ready. Helping children understand that these are decisions that require maturity and responsibility will increase the chance that they make good choices.

Adolescents are able to talk about lovemaking and sex in terms of dating and relationships. They may need help dealing with the intensity of their own sexual feelings, confusion regarding their sexual identity, and sexual behavior in a relationship. Concerns regarding masturbation, menstruation, contraception, pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases are common.

Some adolescents also struggle with conflicts around family, religious or cultural values. Open communication and accurate information from parents increases the chance that teens will postpone sex and will use appropriate methods of birth control once they begin.

In talking with your child or adolescent, it is helpful to:

· Be open in sharing your values and concerns.
· Discuss the importance of responsibility for choices and decisions.
· Encourage your child to talk and ask questions.
· Help your child to consider the pros and cons of choices.
· Keep your sense of humor and don't be afraid to talk about your own discomfort.
· Maintain a calm and non-critical atmosphere for discussions.
· Relate sex to love, intimacy, caring, and respect for oneself and one's partner.
· Try to determine your child's level of knowledge and understanding.
· Use words that are understandable and comfortable.

By developing open, honest and ongoing communication about responsibility, sex, and choice, parents can help their youngsters learn about sex in a healthy and positive manner.

Consider using the following list of topics as an outline:

· Explanation of anatomy and reproduction in males and females
· Fertility and birth control
· How choice of clothing and the way you present yourself sends messages to others about your interest in sexual behavior
· Other forms of sexual behavior, including oral sex, masturbation, and petting
· Rape and date rape, including how being intoxicated (drunk or high), or accepting rides/going to private places with strangers or acquaintances puts you at risk
· Self-image and peer pressure
· Sexual intercourse and pregnancy
· Sexual orientation, including heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality
· Sexually transmitted diseases
· The physical and emotional aspects of sex, including the differences between males and females

Studies show that kids who feel they can talk with their parents about sex -- because their moms and dads speak openly and listen carefully to them -- are less likely to engage in high-risk behavior as teens than kids who do not feel they can talk with their parents about the subject. So explore your feelings about sex. If you are very uncomfortable with the subject, read some books and discuss your feelings with a trusted friend, relative, physician, or clergy member. The more you examine the subject, the more confidence you'll feel discussing it.

Don't worry about knowing all the answers to your children's questions; what you know is a lot less important than how you respond. If you can convey the message that no subject, including sex, is forbidden in your home, you'll be doing just fine.

Children and TV Violence

Television (TV) has its good side. It can be entertaining and educational, and can open up new worlds for kids, giving them a chance to travel the globe, learn about different cultures, and gain exposure to ideas they may never encounter in their own community. Programs with positive role models can influence people to change their behavior for the better. However, the reverse can also be true: Kids are likely to learn things from TV that parents don't want them to learn. TV can affect kids' health and family life.

These days, just about every time you turn on the TV you’re met with a barrage of violent images including explosions, suicide bombings, and war casualties. And that's just the news! Many popular television shows -- even those in the so-called “family” time slot of 7-8:30 p.m. -- also feature much more violence than shows aired in this time slot just a few years ago.

American children watch an average of three to fours hours of television daily. Television can be a powerful influence in developing value systems and shaping behavior. Unfortunately, much of today's television programming is violent. Hundreds of studies of the effects of TV violence on children and teenagers have found that children may:

· imitate the violence they observe on television
· identify with certain characters, victims and/or victimizers
· gradually accept violence as a way to solve problems
· become "immune" or numb to the horror of violence

A great deal is known about children and television, because there have been thousands of studies on the subject. Researchers have studied how TV affects kids' sleep, weight, grades, behavior, and more. It's worth looking at what the research says when deciding how to manage television in your family.

Spending time watching TV can take time away from healthy activities like active play outside with friends, eating dinner together as a family, or reading. TV time also takes away from participating in sports, music, art or other activities that require practice to become skillful.

How does watching television affect performance in school?

Watching TV at age four was one factor found to be associated with bullying in grade school. TV viewing may replace activities that we know help with school performance, such as reading, doing homework, pursuing hobbies, and getting enough sleep. One research study found that TV's effects on education were long term. The study found that watching TV as a child affected educational achievement at age 26. Watching more TV in childhood increased chances of dropping out of school and decreased chances of getting a college degree, even after controlling for confounding factors.

Children who watch more TV are more likely to be overweight:

· While watching TV, the metabolic rate seems to go even lower than during rest. This means that a person would burn fewer calories while watching TV than when just sitting quietly, doing nothing.

· University of Michigan researchers found that just being awake and in the room with the TV on more than two hours a day was a risk factor for being overweight at ages three and four-and-a-half.

· The food and beverage industry targets children with their television marketing, which may include commercials, product placement, and character licensing. Most of the products pushed on kids are high in total calories, sugars, salt, and fat, and low in nutrients.

· The effects can carry on into adult weight problems. Weekend TV viewing in early childhood affects body mass index (BMI), or overweight in adulthood.

· Results from recent studies have reported success in reducing excess weight gain in preadolescents by restricting TV viewing.

· Researchers who investigated whether diet, physical activity, sedentary behavior or television viewing predicted body mass index (BMI) among 3- to 7-year-old children, found that physical activity and TV viewing are most associated with overweight risk. TV was a bigger factor than diet. Inactivity and TV became stronger predictors as the children aged.

· Many TV ads encourage unhealthy eating habits. Two-thirds of the 20,000 TV ads an average child sees each year are for food and most are for high-sugar foods.

· Children who watch TV are more likely to be inactive and tend to snack while watching TV.

· All television shows, even educational non-commercial shows, replace physical activity in your child's life.

Extensive viewing of television violence by children causes greater aggressiveness. Sometimes, watching a single violent program can increase aggressiveness. Children who view shows in which violence is very realistic, frequently repeated or unpunished, are more likely to imitate what they see.

Children with emotional, behavioral, learning or impulse control problems may be more easily influenced by TV violence. The impact of TV violence may be immediately evident in the child's behavior or may surface years later. Young people can even be affected when the family atmosphere shows no tendency toward violence.

Here are some key research findings to keep in mind as you decide what kind of role you want TV to play in your family:

· Advertisers target kids, and on average, children see tens of thousands of TV commercials each year. This includes many ads for unhealthy snack foods and drinks. Children and youth see, on average, about 2,000 beer and wine ads on TV each year.

· Excessive TV viewing can contribute to poor grades, sleep problems, behavior problems, obesity, and risky behavior.

· Kids see favorite characters smoking, drinking, and involved in sexual situations and other risky behaviors in the shows and movies they watch on TV.

· Kids who spend more time watching TV (both with and without parent and siblings present) spend less time interacting with family members.

· Most children' s programming does not teach what parents say they want their children to learn; many shows are filled with stereotypes, violent solutions to problems, and mean behavior.

· TV viewing is probably replacing activities in your child' s life that you would rather have them do (things like playing with friends, being physically active, getting fresh air, reading, playing imaginatively, doing homework, doing chores).

While TV violence is not the only cause of aggressive or violent behavior, it is clearly a significant factor.

Parents can protect children from excessive TV violence in the following ways:

· to offset peer pressure among friends and classmates, contact other parents and agree to enforce similar rules about the length of time and type of program the children may watch

· set limits on the amount of time they spend with the television; consider removing the TV set from the child’s bedroom

· refuse to let the children see shows known to be violent, and change the channel or turn off the TV set when offensive material comes on, with an explanation of what is wrong with the program

· point out that although the actor has not actually been hurt or killed, such violence in real life results in pain or death

· pay attention to the programs their children are watching and watch some with them

· disapprove of the violent episodes in front of the children, stressing the belief that such behavior is not the best way to resolve a problem

Parents can also use these measures to prevent harmful effects from television in other areas such as racial or sexual stereotyping. The amount of time children watch TV, regardless of content, should be moderated because it decreases time spent on more beneficial activities such as reading, playing with friends, and developing hobbies. If parents have serious difficulties setting limits, or have ongoing concerns about their child’s behavior, they should contact a child and adolescent psychiatrist for consultation and assistance.

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It is no secret that video games and television programs often depict graphic violence. But now, three new studies show violence causes children, teenagers and young adults to behave more aggressively than those who watch non-violent media.

In addition, there is also a debate swirling in Washington, D.C. on how to shield children from violent TV shows. Some U.S. lawmakers want to sponsor legislation to shield children from TV violence. But Howard Kurtz, a media reporter for The Washington Post newspaper, predicts a fierce fight from the entertainment industry.

The legislation would also prompt a court battle. Caroline Frederickson from the American Civil Liberties Union says, "Congress is going to have to become a bureau of censorship, and I think I'm hopeful that many members of Congress will recognize that that is not the appropriate role for them to play."

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Parents’ Behavioral Strategies and Approaches for Children with ODD

On their own, children cannot overcome Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Their “bad behavior/attitude” cannot be “solved” with medication, herbal supplements, vitamins or a special diet. Successful treatment of ODD requires Parent Education Training (PET) that involves: (a) promoting the development of self-reliance in children, (b) providing positive attention to children when they behave according to parental expectations, and (c) issuing an appropriate consequence when children do not meet parental expectations.

Examples of effective parenting methods in raising ODD children include:

• Allowing children to make wrong choices, thus giving them wisdom; experience is a great teacher
• Attending to children by using active listening, empathy, paraphrasing, validation, and hugs rather than giving them unearned privileges, food, gifts, fun activities, etc.
• Avoiding over-indulgent parenting
• Avoiding power struggles
• Avoiding slipping into parental-rages
• Avoiding trying to save children from negative consequences and painful emotions associated with their poor choices
• Developing a consistent daily schedule for children
• Differentiating between children’s wants and needs
• Expecting children to resist assertive parenting strategies
• Expecting set backs and relapses, and preparing with a plan to manage those times
• Following through with consequences rather than “nagging”
• Forgiving and letting go of things that children did in the past
• Giving children a certain amount of control
• Giving children a chore to do each day
• Giving effective time-outs
• Giving equal love to all children, but parenting them differently
• Giving only one warning before following through with consequences
• Issuing a consequence without retracting it
• Learning to say “no”
• Modeling the behaviors that parents want children to copy
• Monitoring television and computer use
• Offering acceptable choices to children
• Only giving children gifts on very special occasions (e.g., birthdays, Christmas, graduation)
• Parents learning ways to calm themselves
• Parents taking time for themselves
• Picking battles carefully
• Recognizing and praising children’s good behaviors and positive characteristics
• Remaining calm and unemotional in the face of opposition
• Setting limits on undesirable behavior
• Starting each day with a fresh outlook and a clean slate
• Taking away privileges for a short period of time (usually 1-7 days)
• Working with spouses or others to assure consistent and appropriate discipline procedures

Learning these skills may require counseling, parenting classes or other forms of education, and consistent practice and patience.

Counseling can provide an outlet for mental health concerns that could interfere with the successful parenting of children's symptoms. A depressed or anxious parent may disengage from his or her child, and that can trigger or worsen oppositional behaviors.

Teachers’ Behavioral Strategies and Approaches for Children with ODD

Getting a reaction out of others is the chief hobby of children with ODD. They like to see you get mad. They try to provoke reactions in people and are often successful in creating power struggles. Therefore it is important to have a plan and try not to show any emotion when reacting to them. If you react too emotionally, you may make big mistakes in dealing with this child. Plan in advance what to do when this student engages in certain behaviors and be prepared to follow through calmly.

• Decide which behaviors you are going to ignore. Most children with ODD are doing too many things you dislike to include all of them in a behavior management plan. Thus, target only a few important behaviors, rather than trying to fix everything.

• Make this student a part of any plan to change behavior. If you don't, you'll become the enemy.

• Provide consistency, structure, and clear consequences for the student’s behavior.

• Praise students when they respond positively.

• Establish a rapport with the ODD child. If this child perceives you as reasonable and fair, you'll be able to work more effectively with him or her.

• Avoid making comments or bringing up situations that may be a source of argument for them.

• Never raise your voice or argue with this student. Regardless of the situation do not get into a "yes you will" contest. Silence is a better response.

• Do not take the defiance personally. Remember, you are the outlet and not the cause for the defiance- unless you are shouting, arguing or attempting to handle the student with sarcasm.

• Avoid all power struggles with this student. They will get you nowhere. Thus, try to avoid verbal exchanges. State your position clearly and concisely and choose your battles wisely.

• Always listen to this student. Let him/her talk. Don't interrupt until he/she finishes.

• Address concerns privately. This will help to avoid power struggles as well as an audience for a potential power struggle.

• In the private conference be caring but honest. Tell the student calmly what it is that is causing problems as far as you are concerned. Be sure you listen as well. In this process, insist upon one rule- that you both be respectful.

• When decisions are needed, give two choices or options. State them briefly and clearly. Students with ODD are more likely to complete or perform tasks that they have chosen. This also empowers them to make other decisions.

• Give the ODD student some classroom responsibilities. This will help him/her to feel apart of the class and some sense of controlled power. If he/she abuses the situation, the classroom responsibilities can be earned privileges.

• When you see an ODD child getting frustrated or angry, ask if a calming down period would help. But don't force it on him/her. Rather than sending the student down to the office for this cooling down period, it may be better to establish an isolated “calming down” place in the classroom so he/she can more readily re-engaged in classroom activity following the cooling down period.

• Ask parents what works at home.

Instructional Strategies and Classroom Accommodations for the ODD Student

• Establish clear classroom rules. Be clear about what is nonnegotiable.

• Post the daily schedule so the student will know what to expect.

• Make sure academic work is at the appropriate level. When work is too hard, students become frustrated. When it is too easy, they become bored. Both reactions lead to problems in the classroom.

• Pace instruction. When the student with ODD completes a designated amount of a non-preferred activity, reinforce his/her cooperation by allowing him/her to do something they prefer or find more enjoyable or less difficult.

• Systematically teach social skills, including anger management, conflict resolution and how to be assertive in an appropriate manner. Discuss strategies that the student may use to calm him/ or herself down when they feel their anger escalating. Do this when the student is calm.

• Select materials that encourage student interaction. Students with ODD need to learn to talk to their peers and to adults in an appropriate manner. All cooperative learning activities must be carefully structured, however.

• Minimize downtime and plan transitions carefully. Students with ODD do best when kept busy.

• Allow the ODD student to redo assignments to improve their score or final grade.

• Structure activities so the student with ODD is not always left out or is the last person picked.

Homework Tips for Parents

No Child Left Behind—

On January 8, 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. This new law represents his education reform plan and contains the most sweeping changes to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act since it was enacted in 1965. It changes the federal role in education by asking America's schools to describe their success in terms of what each student accomplishes. The act contains the president's four basic education reform principles:

• An emphasis on effective and proven teaching methods.
• Expanded options for parents; and
• Local control and flexibility;
• Stronger accountability for results;

This law—in partnership with parents, communities, school leadership and classroom teachers—seeks to ensure that every child in America receives a great education and that no child is left behind.

100 Years of Homework

In the early 20th century, the mind was viewed as a muscle that could be strengthened through mental exercise. Since exercise could be done at home, homework was viewed favorably. During the 1940s, schools began shifting their emphasis from memorization to problem solving. Homework fell out of favor because it was closely associated with the repetition of material. In the 1950s, Americans worried that education lacked rigor and left children unprepared for the new technologies, such as computers. Homework, it was believed, could speed up learning.

In the 1960s, educators and parents became concerned that homework was crowding out social experience, outdoor recreation and creative activities. Two decades later, in the 1980s, homework again came back into favor as it came to be viewed as one way to stem a rising tide of mediocrity in American education. The push for more homework continued into the 1990s, fueled by rising academic standards.

To Do or Not To Do Homework?

Homework can have many benefits for young children. It can improve remembering and understanding of schoolwork. Homework can help students develop study skills that will be of value even after they leave school. It can teach them that learning takes place anywhere, not just in the classroom. Homework can benefit children in more general ways as well. It can foster positive character traits such as independence and responsibility. Homework can teach children how to manage time.

Homework, if not properly assigned and monitored, can also have negative effects on children. Educators and parents worry that students will grow bored if they are required to spend too much time on schoolwork. Homework can prevent children from taking part in leisure-time and community activities that also teach important life skills. Homework can lead to undesirable character traits if it promotes cheating, either through the copying of assignments or help with homework that goes beyond tutoring.

The issue for educators and parents is not which list of effects, the positive or negative, is correct. To a degree, both are. It is the job of parents and educators to maximize the benefit of homework and minimize the costs.

Is It Enough Homework?

The most critical question about homework is "How much homework should students do?" Experts agree that the amount of homework should depend on the age and skills of the student. Many national groups of teachers and parents, including the National Parent Teacher Association (PTA), suggest that homework for children in kindergarten through second grade is most effective when it does not exceed 10-20 minutes each day. In third through sixth grade, children can benefit from 30-60 minutes of homework per day. Junior high and high school students can benefit from more time on homework, and the amount may vary from night to night.

Reading at home is especially important for young children. High-interest reading assignments might push the time on homework a bit beyond the minutes suggested above.

These recommendations are consistent with the conclusions reached by many studies on the effectiveness of homework. For young children, research shows that shorter and more frequent assignments may be more effective than longer but fewer assignments. This is because young children have short spans of attention and need to feel they have successfully completed a task.

Types of Homework

Homework assignments typically have one or more purposes. The most common purpose is to have students practice material already presented in class.

--Extension homework asks students to apply skills they already have to new situations.

--Integration homework requires the student to apply many different skills to a single task, such as book reports, science projects or creative writing.

--Practice homework is meant to reinforce learning and help the student master specific skills.

--Preparation homework introduces material that will be presented in future lessons. These assignments aim to help students learn new material better when it is covered in class.

In particular, math homework has been shown to be more important in the middle to high school grades and less important in the elementary grades. It starts to become important in the fourth grade and is increasingly important in the upper grades.

How Parents Can Help with Homework

Research also shows that parent involvement can have either a positive or negative impact on the value of homework. Parent involvement can be used to speed up a child's learning. Homework can involve parents in the school process. It can enhance parents' appreciation of education. It can give them an opportunity to express positive attitudes about the value of success in school.

But parent involvement may also interfere with learning. For example, parents can confuse children if the teaching techniques they use differ from those used in the classroom. Parent involvement in homework can turn into parent interference if parents complete tasks that the child is capable of completing alone.

When mothers and fathers get involved with their children's homework, communication between the school and family can improve. It can clarify for parents what is expected of students. It can give parents a firsthand idea of what students are learning and how well their child is doing in school.

Research shows that if a child is having difficulty with homework, parents should become involved by paying close attention. They should expect more requests from teachers for their help. If a child is doing well in school, parents should consider shifting their efforts to providing support for their child's own choices about how to do homework. Parents should avoid interfering in the independent completion of assignments.

As this brief introduction suggests, homework can be an effective way for students to improve their learning and for parents to communicate their appreciation of schooling. Because a great many things influence the impact of homework achievement, expectations for homework's effects, especially in the earlier grades, must be realistic.

Homework policies and practices should give teachers and parents the flexibility to take into account the unique needs and circumstances of their students. That way, they can maximize the positive effects of homework and minimize the negative ones.

General Homework Tips for Parents—

Be positive about homework.
Tell your child how important school is. The attitude you express about homework will be the attitude your child acquires.

Help your child figure out what is hard homework and what is easy homework.
Have your child do the hard work first. This will mean he will be most alert when facing the biggest challenges. Easy material will seem to go fast when fatigue begins to set in.

Help your child with time management.
Establish a set time each day for doing homework. Don't let your child leave homework until just before bedtime. Think about using a weekend morning or afternoon for working on big projects, especially if the project involves getting together with classmates.

If homework is meant to be done by your child alone, stay away.
Too much parent involvement can prevent homework from having some positive effects. Homework is a great way for kids to develop independent, lifelong learning skills.

Make sure the materials your child needs, such as paper, pencils and a dictionary, are available.
Ask your child if special materials will be needed for some projects and get them in advance.

Make sure your child has a quiet, well-lit place to do homework.
Avoid having your child do homework with the television on or in places with other distractions, such as people coming and going.

Reward progress in homework.
If your child has been successful in homework completion and is working hard, celebrate that success with a special event (e.g., pizza, a walk, a trip to the park) to reinforce the positive effort.

Stay informed.
Talk with your child's teacher. Make sure you know the purpose of homework and what your child's class rules are.

Watch your child for signs of failure and frustration.
Let your child take a short break if she is having trouble keeping her mind on an assignment.

When the teacher asks that you play a role in homework, do it.
Cooperate with the teacher. It shows your child that the school and home are a team. Follow the directions given by the teacher.

When your child asks for help, provide guidance, not answers.
Giving answers means your child will not learn the material. Too much help teaches your child that when the going gets rough, someone will do the work for him or her.

When your child does homework, you do homework.
Show your child that the skills they are learning are related to things you do as an adult. If your child is reading, you read too. If your child is doing math, balance your checkbook.

Reading Homework Tips for Parents—

--After your child has stopped to correct a word he has read, have him go back and reread the entire sentence from the beginning to make sure he understands what the sentence is saying.

--As your child reads, point out spelling and sound patterns such as cat, pat, hat.

--Ask your child to tell you in her own words what happened in a story.

--Ask your child why she thinks a character acted in a certain way and ask your child to support her answer with information from the story.

--Before getting to the end of a story, ask your child what he thinks will happen next and why.

--Choose a quiet place, free from distractions, for your child to do his nightly reading assignments.

--Have your child read aloud to you every night.

--To check your child's understanding of what he is reading, occasionally pause and ask your child questions about the characters and events in the story.

--When your child reads aloud to you and makes a mistake, point out the words she has missed and help her to read the word correctly.

Math Homework Tips for Parents—

--Advocate with the principal for the use of research-based peer tutoring programs for math. These tutoring programs have proven results, and students really enjoy them.

--At the beginning of the year, ask your child's teacher for a list of suggestions that will enable you to help your child with math homework.

--Encourage your child to use a daily math assignment book.

--Follow the progress your child is making in math. Check with your child daily about his homework.

--If you don't understand your child's math assignments, engage in frequent communication with his or her teacher.

--If your child is experiencing problems in math, contact the teacher to learn whether he or she is working at grade level and what can be done at home to help improve academic progress.

--Request that your child's teacher schedule after-school math tutoring sessions if your child really needs help.

--Try to be aware of how your child is being taught math, and don't teach strategies and shortcuts that conflict with the approach the teacher is using. Check in with the teacher and ask what you can do to help. Ask the teacher about online resources that you can use with your child at home.

--Use household chores as opportunities for reinforcing math learning such as cooking and repair activities.

The info above can be effectively used in a number of different ways. Families may use these tips at home, volunteering in school, or tutoring in their local churches or community groups. Teachers may create their own list of activities to accompany the tips. Teachers can post the tips in the classroom, use them in meetings with parents, design workshops around them and use them to guide parents in developing homework plans for their children. Tips can be sent home along with a list of objectives to be covered for the year, as a means to include parents in and out of the classroom.

Science project due?Take a deep breath of relief. You've found your experiment!

My Child Can't Pay Attention

ADHD occurs in 3-5% of school age children. ADHD must begin before the age of seven and it can continue into adulthood. ADHD runs in families with about 25% of biological parents also having this medical condition.

Any child may show inattention, distractibility, impulsivity, or hyperactivity at times, but the child with ADHD shows these symptoms and behaviors more frequently and severely than other children of the same age or developmental level.

Even though the child with ADHD often wants to be a good student, the impulsive behavior and difficulty paying attention in class frequently interferes and causes problems. Teachers, parents, and friends know that the child is misbehaving or different but they may not be able to tell exactly what is wrong.

Parents are distressed when they receive a note from school saying that their child won't listen to the teacher or causes trouble in class. One possible reason for this kind of behavior is Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

A child with ADHD often shows some of the following:

• blurts out answers
• easily distracted
• fidgets or squirms
• impatience
• inattention to details and makes careless mistakes
• interrupts or intrudes on others
• leaves seat and runs about or climbs excessively
• loses school supplies, forgets to turn in homework
• seems "on the go"
• talks too much and has difficulty playing quietly
• trouble finishing class work and homework
• trouble following multiple adult commands
• trouble listening
• trouble paying attention

A child presenting with ADHD symptoms should have a comprehensive evaluation. Parents should ask their pediatrician or family physician to refer them to a child and adolescent psychiatrist, who can diagnose and treat this medical condition.

A child with ADHD may also have other psychiatric disorders such as conduct disorder, anxiety disorder, depressive disorder, or bipolar disorder. These children may also have learning disabilities.

Without proper treatment, the child may fall behind in schoolwork, and friendships may suffer. The child experiences more failure than success and is criticized by teachers and family who do not recognize a health problem.

Research clearly demonstrates that medication can help improve attention, focus, goal directed behavior, and organizational skills. Medications most likely to be helpful include the stimulants (various methylphenidate and amphetamine preparations) and the non-stimulant, atomoxetine. Other medications such as guanfacine, clonidine, and some antidepressants may also be helpful.

Cognitive therapy can help a child build self-esteem, reduce negative thoughts, and improve problem-solving skills. Parents can learn management skills such as issuing instructions one-step at a time rather than issuing multiple requests at once. Education modifications can address ADHD symptoms along with any coexisting learning disabilities.

Other treatment approaches may include cognitive-behavioral therapy, social skills training, parent education, and modifications to the child’s education program. Behavioral therapy can help a child control aggression, modulate social behavior, and be more productive.

A child who is diagnosed with ADHD and treated appropriately can have a productive and successful life.

Treatment choices—

Children's hospitals that have psychiatric units with programs dedicated to treating ADHD are often a good place to receive treatment, but a psychiatrist's or neurologist's office will generally have staff who can understand and treat ADHD effectively.

ADHD can be treated by psychiatrists, psychiatric/mental health nurse practitioners, and neurologists; some practitioners of this type specialize in treating children with ADHD and others specialize in the treatment of adults with ADHD.

In the United States, an educational institution must make accommodations for a child with ADHD when the educational institution is provided with diagnostic documentation signed by a physician or psychologist (see section 503 of American Disabilities Act).

A pediatric psychiatrist/psychologist or neurologist can provide the child’s school with a written ADHD diagnosis that informs the school of accommodations that may aid the student in academic endeavors.

Accommodations may include:

• A distraction-free environment during examination
• Copies of lecture notes
• Extended due dates for homework
• Extended time for taking exams
• Permission to record lectures

Medications endorsed by American Psychiatric Association—

Amphetamine based medications:

Adderall

Desoxyn

Dexedrine

Methylphenidate based medications:

Daytrana

Focalin

Ritalin

Osmosis:

The only ADHD medication that currently utilizes osmotic pressure to achieve a controlled release of medicine is Concerta.

Transdermal:

Daytrana is applied to the skin in the morning and the drug is evenly absorbed throughout the day, the patient should expect to feel the effects of Daytrana until two hours after the patch was removed, so patients should expect to take the patch off a few hours before bedtime.

Prodrug:

A prodrug is a compound which is itself inactive, but when metabolized becomes pharmacologically active. Prodrugs are usually designed to improve oral bioavailability as the chemical properties of the active compound may cause it to be poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Lisdexamfetamine (Sold as Vyvanse) is a prodrug of dextroamphetamine. Vyvanse is a geltin capsule that quickly disolves once swollowed releasing lisdexamfetamine dimesylate.

Medications not endorsed by American Psychiatric Association—

Benzphetamine (Didrex) — a less powerful stimulant. It has little psychoactive effects until the liver metabolizes it into amphetamine and methamphetamine. Since this acts as a sustained release mechanism, it has lower abuse potential and is schedule 3.

Amineptine (Survector/Maneon) — a tricyclic antidepressant now illegal in many countries for being thought to have a small potential for abuse. It is still legal in some parts of the EU, such as Spain and Italy; it is no longer available in the U.S., Canada, France or the UK.

Amantadine (Symmetrel) — an antiviral drug and dopamine agonist. There have been reports of low-dose amantadine having been successfully used off-label to treat ADHD.

Clonidine — Initially developed as a treatment for high blood pressure, low doses in evenings and/or afternoons are sometimes used in conjunction with stimulants to help with sleep and because Clonidine sometimes helps moderate impulsive and oppositional behavior and may reduce tics. It may be more useful for comorbid Tourette syndrome.

Bupropion (Wellbutrin) is classified as an antidepressant. It is the most common of off-label prescription for ADHD. It inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine, and to a lesser extent, dopamine, in neuronal synapses, and has little or no effect on serotonergic re-uptake. Bupropion is not a controlled substance. It is commonly prescribed as a timed release formulation to decrease the risk of side effects. Bupropion is not particularly known for its stimulant properties because at high doses it tends to cause seizures in a large portion of the population.

Selegiline — an MAOI currently being investigated for ADHD.

Pemoline (Cylert) — a stimulant used with great success until the late 1980s when it was discovered that this medication could cause liver damage. In March 2005, the makers of Cylert announced that it would discontinue the medication's production. It is no longer available in the United States.

Modafinil (Provigil/Alertec/Sparlon) — In the U.S., it is currently off-label pending decision by the FDA on August 22, 2006. Was originally pending marketing on-label as Alertec but denied for a reported incidence of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome.

Emsam is a version of Selegiline delivered via transdermal patch.

Tricyclic anti-depressants are also occasionally prescribed, but they seem to only treat the hyperactive part of the condition. There is research on the selective serotonin reuptake enhancer class of medications (SSREs); currently, the only one available is tianeptine (trade name Stablon); this is an atypical tricyclic anti-depressant which is inconclusive in its efficacy and hence not approved. Tianeptine is not available in North America.

Experimental and alternative medicine treatments

Alternative medicine treatments:

Many alternative treatments have been proposed for ADHD. However, none of the treatments has widespread acceptance in the mainstream medical community, and none of the alternative treatments has proven to cause significant reduction of ADHD symptoms.

Experimental treatments:

There are indications that children with ADHD are metabolically different from others.

• Perhaps the best known of the dietary alternatives is the Feingold diet which involves removing salicylates, artificial colors and flavors, and certain synthetic preservatives from children's diets. Some studies have linked ADHD to salicylate sensitivity. However, other studies have shown little if any affect of the Feingold diet on the behavior of children with ADHD.
• Medical cannabis is used by many people with ADHD, often self-medicated, or supervised by a doctor.
• In addition, some studies suggest that a lack of omega-3 fatty acids is associated with certain ADHD symptoms. and it has therefore been suggested that diet modification may play a role in the management of ADHD. People with ADHD were found to have significantly lower plasma phospholipids and erythrocytes omega-3 fatty acids. Their intake of saturated fat was found to be 30% higher than in controls, while the intake of many other nutrients was not different. In support of the idea that it is not the intake of essential fatty acids that causes low tissue levels, a preliminary study showed that exhaled ethane, a marker of omega-3 fatty acids peroxidation, was higher in children with ADHD relative to controls. Researchers from Australia's national science agency showed polyunsaturated fatty acids to provide "medium to strong positive treatment effects" in ADHD.
• Although the role of zinc in ADHD has not be elucidated, "numerous controlled studies report cross-sectional evidence of lower zinc tissue levels".
• In the 1980s vitamin B<sub>6</sub> was promoted as a helpful remedy for children with learning difficulties including inattentiveness, however, a study of large doses of vitamins with ADHD children showed that they were ineffective in changing behavior.
• In 2006, a study demonstrated that children with autism had significantly lower magnesium than controls, and that the correction of this deficit was therapeutic: Mousain-Bosc et al showed that children with ADHD (n = 46) had significantly lower red blood cell magnesium levels than controls (n = 30). Intervention with magnesium and vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) reduced hyperactivity, hyperemotivity/aggressiveness and improved school attention.
• Zinc and multivitamins have been promoted as cures, and currently the addition of certain fatty acids such as omega-3 has been proposed as beneficial.
• In 2005, the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, Pediatrics, published the case report of a child with ADHD with low ferritin who showed "considerable behavioral improvement" after his ferritin was normalized by iron supplementation. Based on earlier studies on iron deficiency and attentional function (notably the dopamine synthesis aspect), the screening of ferritin levels in children with ADHD was suggested.

• Evening Primrose Oil, as well as St.John's Wort, may reduce the severity of ADHD symptoms, but they are not the most effective treatments available. They may be suitable for people with mild ADHD symptoms.

• Mild stimulants such as caffeine, theobromine, and nicotine may improve the function of some children suffering from ADHD. However, since ADHD is thought to be related to deficiencies of dopamine and/or norepinephrine, such treatments are not medically recognized, as opposed to amphetamine-like drugs which have significant dopaminergic and norepinephrinergic action.
• There is some evidence that the anti-depressant drug Milnacipran may help alleviate the symptoms of ADHD in adults.

Psychotherapeutic approaches—

There are a variety of psychotherapy approaches employed by psychiatrists, the one used depends on the patient and the patient's symptoms.

Psychotherapy:

Psychotherapy is another option, with or without medication, that has been shown to be effective.

Coaching:

ADHD Coaching is a program where coaches work with ADHD individuals to help them prioritize, organize, and develop life skills. Coaching is aimed at helping clients to be more realistic in setting goals for themselves by learning about their individual challenges and gifts, and emphasizes spending more time in areas of strength, while minimizing time spent dealing with areas of difficulty.

Only recently, studies on the cost-effectiveness of ADHD treatment have begun to appear. To date valid information is limited, although a review presented identified 11 health technology assessments and cost-effectiveness analyses, all of which compared the economic merits of at least two treatment alternatives.

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Dr. John Breeding, professor, author and Ph.D. psychologist discusses ADHD.

Millions of American school children are placed on mind-altering stimulant medications for ADHD. Is there any biological basis for calling ADHD a mental illness? What test exists to diagnosis ADHD? What criteria are used to diagnosis a child with ADHD?

In these series of videos Dr. Breeding give you the straight truth about ADHD and ADD.

Medications like Ritalin, Concerta, Adderall, Dexedrine, Strattera, Focalin and Metadata all have undesirable side effects and can damage a person's organs.

So if you child is having difficulty, what can you do besides give them drugs? Dr. Breeding discusses how to deal with children effectively.

Visit Dr. Breedings Website at www.wildestcolts.com

The new edition of John's book, The Wildest Colts Make the Best Horses may be ordered from Chimpunka Publishing at chipmunkapublishing.co.uk/shop...