Kids must pass through several stages, or take specific steps, on their road to becoming adults. For most people, there are four or five such stages of growth where they learn certain things: infancy (birth to age two), early childhood (ages 3 to 8 years), later childhood (ages 9 to 12) and adolescence (ages 13 to 18). Persons 18 and over are considered adults in our society. Of course, there are some who will try to act older than their years. But, for the most part, most everybody grows in this same pattern. Moms & dads learn much about taking care of their babies and young kids. At the hospital or with the doctor, you might pick up information about what to feed them or how long they should sleep. Later, school staff may remind you about the importance of talking and reading to your young kids. You can also see how your friends or relatives treat their kids. You cannot say the same thing about learning to talk with adolescents. It seems like everyone, even teachers and neighbors have problems understanding them. Giving up, you might turn to doing and saying the same things your moms & dads did with you. But those were other times!
You can begin to understand this age group if you look at its place on the growth sequence. Notice how it's right next to the adult stage, the last step before being an adult. This is a time for adolescents to decide about their future line of work and think about starting their own families in a few years. One of the first things they must do is to start making their own decisions. For example adolescents can begin to decide what to buy with their own money or who will be their friend. To do this they must put a little distance between themselves and their moms & dads. This does not mean that you can't continue to ``look after them'' or help them when needed. You should, as much as possible, let them learn from the results of their actions. Adolescents also need to be around other adults, both male and female. These can be relatives, neighbors, or teachers. Of course, they should be positive role models. Your adolescents can learn from them about things like how to fix the car, getting along with others, or ideas for future jobs. Finally, don't worry if they want to spend time alone. Adolescents can ``spend hours'' day dreaming about their future life. They might be planning the things they can do or will buy ``when they grow up.'' Remember, to travel far, one begins with the first few steps!
Models of Adolescent Transition
Adolescents face a range of developmental issues. Havighurst (1952) suggested that two important areas included work and relationships. Levinson (1978) focused on changing relationships and on exploration, while Erikson (1968) commented on intimacy and commitment to goals. Super (1963) indicated that exploring and crystallizing vocational choice are important to older adolescents and young adults. What seems evident is that older adolescents and young adults enter transitions with the goal of becoming independently functioning adults, as they strive to meet evolving personal and career related needs. Rapid and escalating changes in labor market and post-secondary educational opportunities mean that adolescents now are confronted with the challenge of meeting their personal and career needs when neither can offer certainty or a sense of personal control.
Transition From High School—
A longitudinal study by Amundson, Borgen, and Tench (in press) found that young people left high school unprepared for current career realities and that both the career and personal areas of their lives were in a state of change and uncertainty. At the end of their final year of high school, young people in the study expressed optimism about entering the career area of their choice and they expected to be successful workers in challenging jobs which offered personal satisfaction. About half the respondents indicated some concern about meeting post-secondary entrance standards. Approximately 9 and 18 months following graduation, depression, self-esteem, and anxiety were correlated with a range of perceived problems, including money, lack of support from family and friends, internal attribution of general transition problems, external attribution of career/employment difficulties, and lack of job satisfaction.
At the end of the study, some of the young people were interviewed. They were asked about factors that helped or hindered the post-high-school transition. Positive factors included supportive family and friends, making money, satisfying leisure activities, personal achievements, and educational success. Negative factors included relationship problems, career confusion, financial difficulties, unemployment, lack of satisfying work, lack of post-secondary educational opportunities, and difficulty in adjusting to post-secondary educational demands.
Developmentally, the young people were trying to meet personal and career-related needs, which were in a state of flux and uncertainty. It was apparent that a lack of progress in one area could have a negative influence on the other (e.g., an inability to gain post-secondary educational admission or paid work could drastically alter one's ability to move from being a dependent adolescent to an independent adult).
An Expanded View of Career Counseling: Engendering Competence—
The above study suggests a need for a broader view of career counseling; counseling which recognizes the developmental needs of young people, the influence of social and economic changes, and the importance of basing intervention strategies on personal and career competence, all within a context of diminished and changing opportunities for choice. In order to address this broader range of issues, we have employed a competence model with eight main areas (Amundson, Borgen & Tench, in press): purpose, problem solving, communication skills, theoretical knowledge, applied knowledge, organizational adaptability, human-relations skills, and self-confidence. We also have developed a number of counseling strategies that facilitate a smoother transition:
1. Bridging Programs. Many young people lack "hands-on" experience as they attempt to enter the world of work. Many also are unfamiliar with, and fearful of, moving into post-secondary education. To address this concern, counselors need to develop work experience and co-op education programs to help young people acquire the necessary experience. Post-secondary education entry programs can also play an important role in easing transition difficulties.
2. Coping with Loss. We were surprised at the extent to which young people were influenced by various personal losses. These losses involved death in the family (usually grand moms & dads) and the experience of parental separation and divorce. The impact of these losses upon career events was considerable, suggesting a definite need for youth to develop competence in handling loss and grieving. Counseling in this domain blurs many of the traditional distinctions between the personal and career areas.
3. Coping with Stress. Adolescence is a period of considerable stress. While much of the stress can by minimized through support, persistence, and active decision making and planning, there still will be times when young people find themselves in difficult situations. Coping with stress is associated with various competencies such as organizational adaptability, human relations, problem solving, and self-confidence. Particular strategies for stress management include relaxation techniques, managing 'self talk,' focusing, and using support systems.
4. Developing Multiple Plans. Many young people leave high school with a narrow plan of action and with few alternatives. They fully expect to be successful with the plan and are not prepared to face any barriers. Developing flexibility in career planning requires a sense of purpose, problem solving skills, and several plans. Helpful strategies include visualization, lateral thinking, assessing options, and decision making in a context of uncertainty (Gelatt, 1989).
5. Information and Information Access. The challenge in the information age is not only how to gather information, but how to turn information into personally relevant knowledge. Young people need up-to-date information on careers, education programs, and market trends. They must also develop skills to assess the relevance of information. Acquiring these skills involves both theoretical and applied knowledge. Counseling strategies within this domain include helping young people develop research, interviewing, and critical analysis skills.
6. Managing Changing Relationships. The emotional and social changes adolescents experience can challenge young people as they try to cope with barriers in the education system and labor market. Friends provide emotional support, but this is a time when friendship patterns are changing. Moms & dads are needed for emotional, material, and information support, but, at the same time, they need to allow young people sufficient room to develop their own sense of identity. Coping with relationship issues can be facilitated through communication, human relationship training, and problem solving, which blurs most of the traditional distinction between career and personal counseling.
7. Meeting Basic Needs. Young people have a strong need for community. Other central needs include having a sense of meaning in life, physical and emotional security, and basic structure in relationships and living. As young people mover beyond high school, many of these basic needs require revaluation. In addition to changing relationships, questions emerge as to how to make a living, how to plan meaningful activities, and how to effectively manage time. To facilitate these changes, young people need to establish a sense of purpose and understand how they are meeting their current and future needs. Counselors can help clarify these issues. Without this type of developmental assistance, young people often lack the resilience to maneuver within increasingly competitive educational and labor market environments.
8. Self-Advocacy and Marketing. As young people move towards further education, or into the labor market, it is critical for them to market and advocate for themselves. With scarce opportunities and confusing bureaucracies, there is a need to develop communication skills, self-confidence, organizational adaptability, and effectiveness in human relations. This requires activities such as mentoring, role-played practice, and ongoing economic, emotional, and informational support.
How Can Moms & Dads Insure Their Adolescent’s Growth?
Normal growth — aided by good nutrition, enough sleep and regular physical exercise — is one of the best indicators of your adolescent's good health. While this may become more of a parental challenge as kids become older and increase their independence and take more responsible for their own meals and snacks, moms & dads still play a vital role in ensuring their adolescent receives proper nutrition.
Make sure to:
• Be a good role model. Don’t skip meals, eat junk food or partake in crash dieting
• Encourage five servings of fruits and vegetables each day.
• Ensure your adolescent’s bone health with 1,300 mg of calcium daily (three to four servings of low-fat dairy).
• Plan and prepare low-fat, well-balanced meals for your family.
• Start your adolescent’s day with a nutritious breakfast.
A malnourished adolescent may be pushed off his or her "natural" growth pattern. Although the adolescent won't stop growing, there may be a slowing down or flattening of growth and delay in appearance or progression of the other features of puberty.
The Growth Chart and Height—
Growth charts are used to plot your adolescent's individual rate of growth on a curve over a period of time. The curves are generated from weight and height information taken from data on thousands of kids and are useful in comparing the growth of normal kids.
Despite data collected for growth charts, "normal" heights are difficult to define. Shorter moms & dads, for instance, tend to have shorter kids, while taller moms & dads tend to have taller kids.
Although moms & dads sometimes worry if their adolescent is the "right" size in comparison to other adolescents, the more important question is whether your adolescent is continuing to grow at a normal rate. If your youngster's doctor suspects a problem — such as a growth rate that had been proceeding normally but has recently flattened — he or she may track your youngster's measurements carefully over several months to determine whether the growth pattern suggests a possible health problem or is just a variation of normal.
Most kids who are growing at or below the 5th percentile line on the growth chart (or who are much later than average in starting puberty) are usually following one of the two normal variant growth patterns below:
Familial (Genetic) Short Stature—
These kids have inherited genes for short stature from their moms & dads. Usually one or both moms & dads, and often other relatives, are short. Although they are shorter than average, these kids grow at a normal rate and are otherwise healthy, showing no symptoms of medical problems that can affect growth. They generally enter puberty at an average age and reach a final adult height similar to that of their moms & dads. In general, no treatment for these kids is recommended or known to be effective in significantly increasing their final adult height.
Constitutional Growth Delay (Delayed Puberty)—
Although they are usually of average size in early infancy, these kids undergo a period of slower-than-average growth between 6 months and 2 years of age, causing them to fall to the 5th percentile or lower on the growth chart. After about age 2 or 3, kids with constitutional growth delay will grow at a normal childhood rate until they reach puberty and undergo a growth spurt at an older age than most other adolescents. Because they start puberty later, they will continue to grow after most adolescents have stopped, thus "catching up" to their peers in final adult height. Moms & dads or close relatives of these kids may have a history of delayed puberty and a similar growth pattern.
In general, these kids need no treatment, although endocrinologists may recommend a period of treatment with androgens (male hormones) to initiate pubertal changes and accelerate the growth rate of some males who are having severe emotional difficulty coping with their delay in physical maturation and growth.
If the doctor finds your youngster is growing or developing too slowly or not at all, further testing may be appropriate and treatment may be indicated. In addition to malnutrition, a number of conditions can produce small stature or delayed puberty. These include hypothyroidism, growth hormone deficiency, skeletal dysplasias, a number of genetic conditions, and a variety of chronic diseases. All of these conditions may interfere with growth long before they produce other noticeable symptoms.
Obesity and Overweight—
By calculating your adolescent’s body mass index, the doctor can determine whether your adolescent may be too thin or heavy in relation to height, age and sex. General guidelines classify kids aged 2 to 18 as obese if their BMI is equal or greater than the 95th percentile for their age and sex. Kids and adolescents are considered overweight if their BMI is equal to or greater than the 85th percentile but less than the 95th percentile.
Exceeding a healthy weight increases the risk for developing type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure and high cholesterol. Overweight and obese adolescents also place more stress on their musculoskeletal system. In addition overweight and obese kids are far more likely to be overweight and obese as adults placing them at increased risk for many chronic illnesses such as heart disease, stroke, gall bladder disease and diabetes.
Weight in adolescents is related to several things, including exercise, diet and physical build. Eating healthy low-fat foods and getting at least 60 minutes of physical activity most days of the week are two keys to reaching and maintaining a healthy weight.
If your adolescent is overweight or obese, work with your adolescent’s doctor to determine a safe weight loss plan. For older kids and adolescents, 2 pounds per week is a safe rate of weight loss.
Body Image and Eating Disorders—
Moms & dads of preteens and adolescents should be aware that various eating disorders, including anorexia (starvation related to a misperception of body weight) and bulimia (binging and purging), can interfere with the growing process. Young women ages 12 to 25 are most commonly affected. Signs of a potential problem include: obsession with weight, abuse of laxatives, excessive exercise, interruption of menstrual periods, preference to eat alone, and long visits to the restroom following meals. Eating disorders can become dangerous quickly. If you suspect your preteen or adolescent has an eating disorder, turn to your adolescent’s doctor for help.
Puberty—
Puberty — or sexual maturation — is a time of dramatic change for both males and females. For both sexes, these hormone-driven changes are accompanied by growth spurts that transform kids into adolescents as their bodies develop.
Females—
There is wide variation in the age at which puberty normally begins. Breast development is usually the first noticeable sign of puberty in females. This may begin anytime between the ages of 8 and 13, with the average being about 10½ years.
The following characteristics describe the sequence of events in females as they progress through puberty:
• Breasts begin to develop and hips become rounded.
• Menstruation begins, almost always after the peak growth rate in height has been reached (average age is 12½ years).
• Pubic hair begins to appear, usually within six to 12 months after the start of breast development (although about 15 percent of females will develop pubic hair before breast development starts).
• Pubic hair is well established and breasts grow further.
• The growth spurt begins.
• The rate of growth in height reaches its peak by about 2 years after puberty began (average age is 12 years).
• Uterus and vagina, as well as labia and clitoris, increase in size.
Once females start to menstruate, they grow about 1 or 2 more inches, reaching their final adult height by about age 14 or 15 (younger or older depending on when puberty began).
Males—
Males tend to enter puberty between the ages of 11 and 14. They tend to grow most quickly between ages 12 and 15. The growth spurt of males is usually about two years later than that of females. By age 16, most males have stopped growing, but their muscles will continue to develop.
Other features of puberty in males include:
• Adam's apple, or larynx, gets bigger.
• Penis and testicles increase in size.
• Pubic hair appears, followed by underarm and facial hair.
• Testicles begin to produce sperm.
• Voice deepens and may sometimes crack or break.
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